Notes on Factor Theories and Cognitive Theories of Intelligence !
Characteristics of people with regard to their intellectual activities and abilities indicate that the intelligence cannot be a single function or capacity.
There must be various components for intelligence. Psychologists have attempted to analyze these components, which has resulted in the development of different theories.
These theories have been grouped into two categories—viz., Factor theories and cognitive theories.
1. Factor Theories:
On the basis of factor analysis psychologists have developed their own theories.
Some of the important theories are:
a) Thurston’s multifactor theory:
Thurston (1946) rejected the General theory of intelligence and instead presented his own theory.
This theory states that the human intelligence includes 7 primary mental abilities. Though these abilities appear to be different, they are related to each other. They are:
Thurston has developed a test called Primary Mental Abilities test to assess these factors.
b) Spearman’s two-factor theory:
This as a very popular theory. According to Spearman intelligence is the ability to think constructively. Spearman (1927) proposes that intelligence consists of two abilities, viz. ‘G’- general ability and ‘S’- special ability.
General factor or ability works in conjunction with special ability. In all intellectual activities of the human being along with general ability, there will also be a special ability which is related to such action.
c) Multi factor theory of intelligence:
Proposed by EL Thorndike. According to Thorndike, intelligence is not a single factor like general intelligence rather it is a combination of multiple factors.
These factors include:
(a) Abstract intelligence, (b) Concrete (technical) intelligence, (c) Social intelligence, etc. Thorndike states, each factor is an independent element and hence it is not possible to combine all these elements.
d) Guilford’s tri-dimensional theory:
JP Guilford (1961) developed a model of intelligence in which he explained that every intellectual activity can be described in terms of three different basic dimensions, viz., operations- the act of thinking, contents- the terms in which we think like words, symbols, etc. and products- the ideas we develop.
He has proposed his tri-dimensional theory of intelligence represented by cubical model. This model is provided with 120 primary abilities, and is a combination of 4 contents, 5 operations and 6 products (4x5x6=120).
The Figure 3.12 gives us the comprehensive idea of the primary mental abilities included in intelligence. However, Guilford (1967) has expanded his cube-shaped model of intellect to include 150 factors, which includes 5 contents, 6 products and 5 operations (5x6x5=150).
This may be understood by studying this example: A child is asked to determine the day of the week on a particular date with the help of a calendar. The task involves operations like convergent thinking, memory and cognition.
In carrying out these operations, he has to make use of the contents. In this particular case, he will make use of semantics, i.e. reading and understanding of the printed words and figures indicating days and dates of a particular month in the calendar.
By carrying out mental operations with the help of the contents he will finally arrive at the products. The day of the week to which the date in question refers represents the factor known as ‘relations’.
2. Cognitive Theories of Intelligence:
These theories are otherwise called process-oriented theories. They focus on intellectual processes; the patterns of thinking and reasoning in people, used to solve problems.
These theories consider intelligence as a process which helps to deal with problems and to find out the answers. They are called cognitive theories because of their focus on fundamental cognitive processes. The important theories are:
Cattell and Horn’s Theory:
Cattell (1971) and Horn (1978) have proposed this theory in which they have distinguished two types of intelligence.
a. Fluid intelligence:
This is an innate, biologically or genetically determined capacity and not influenced by education or training. This capacity helps the person in learning and problem solving. This is the ability which is useful in understanding and adjusting to strange situations. This ability develops fully in people by the end of an individual’s adolescence.
b. Crystallized intelligence:
It is a learned or acquired capacity. It is influenced by environmental factors like education, training, culture, knowledge and learned skills. This ability can be observed in the behaviour of a person while dealing within culture, traditions in society, his knowledge in worldly affairs, through the skills in handling machinery, tools, etc. Generally it continues throughout life. Though both types of intelligence are independent, they are interrelated.
Information Processing Theory of Intelligence:
This theory was proposed by American Psychologist Robert Sternberg (1984). He distinguished between information processing components and meta-components. Components are the steps to solve a problem and the meta-components are the basics of knowledge that one has to know to solve the problem.
The information processing is like a process of solving a problem by an individual in which he proceeds to solve a problem which he comes across, gathers the necessary information and makes use of this information for completing that task.
Information processing includes the following steps:
i. Identifying the relevant information (encoding)
ii. Drawing the necessary inferences (inferring)
iii. Establishing relationship between past and present experiences (mapping)
iv. Applying the inferred relationship (application)
v. Justifying the correct solution (justification)
vi. Provide the correct solution (response).
Jensen’s Theory of Mental Functioning:
Arther Jensen (1969) proposed this theory. According to him, the functioning of one’s mind depends upon the type and degree of intelligence one possesses. Jensen splits intelligence into two types of abilities- associative abilities and cognitive abilities.
Associative ability is the capacity to learn, identify, discriminate, remember and reproduce the learnt information and experiences. On the other hand, cognitive or conceptual ability is concerned with higher order thinking, reasoning, analysing and problem solving.
According to Jenson associative abilities are related to biological maturation and the cognitive are dependent on education and culture, leading to more individual differences.
In addition to these, there are theories proposed by HJ Eysenck, Compion and Brown, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence, etc.